Vitamin D deficiency

Vitamin D deficiency symptoms

Severe vitamin d deficiency can cause osteomalacia in adults and rickets in children. Lesser degrees of deficiency in diet may lead to a burning sensation in the mouth and throat, weight loss, loss of appetite, visual problems, diarrhea and insomnia.

People at higher risk

* those with intake below recommended levels.
* those who have limited sunlight exposure.
* those whose kidney cannot change the vitamin to the active form. ” kidney disorder”
* those with inadequate absorption of the vitamin from their digestive tract. ” GIT disorder”

Symptoms of rickets:

* Bowed legs and bowed arms. The bowed appearance is due to the softening of bones, and their bending if the bones are weight-bearing.
* Particular bony bumps on the ribs called rachitic rosary (beadlike prominences at the junction of the ribs with their cartilages)
* Knock-knees.
* Seizures may also occasionally occur in a child with rickets, because of reduced levels of dissolved calcium in the bloodstream.

Symptoms of osteomalacia:

* Easy fatigue.
* Pain in the back, ribs, and hips. Some of the pain in osteomalacia is caused by slight cracks in the bone (the medical term is ‘partial fractures’), which are visible on x-rays.
* Bone softness.
* Muscle weakness.
* Difficult getting up from a chair or climbing steps.
* Abnormal walk.
* Bone fractures.

Secondary Hypertension

2ry hypertension represents for approximately 5-10% of all cases of hypertension, with the remaining being primary hypertension.
Secondary hypertension has an identifiable cause and treated by controlling or removing the underlying disease or pathology, although they may still require antihypertensive drugs. whereas primary hypertension has no known cause (i.e., idiopathic).

Some causes for secondary hypertension are listed below:
1-Renal artery stenosis (renovascular disease)

Renal artery disease can cause of narrowing of the vessel lumen (stenosis). The reduced lumen diameter decreases the pressure at the afferent arteriole in the kidney and reduces renal perfusion. This stimulates renin release by the kidney, which increases circulating angiotensin II (AII) and aldosterone. These hormones increase blood volume by enhancing renal reabsorption of sodium and water. Increased AII also causes systemic vasoconstriction and enhances sympathetic activity. Chronic elevation of AII promotes cardiac and vascular hypertrophy. The net effect of these renal mechanisms is an increase in blood volume that augments cardiac output by the Frank-Starling mechanism. Therefore, hypertension caused by renal artery stenosis results from both an increase in systemic vascular resistance and an increase in cardiac output.

2-Chronic renal disease
Any number of pathologic processes (e.g., diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis) can damage nephrons in the kidney. When this occurs, the kidney cannot excrete normal amounts of sodium which leads to sodium and water retention, increased blood volume, and increased cardiac output by the Frank-Starling mechanism. Renal disease may also result in increased release of renin leading to a renin-dependent form of hypertension. The elevation in arterial pressure secondary to renal disease can be viewed as an attempt by the kidney to increase renal perfusion and restore glomerular filtration.

3-Primary hyperaldosteronism
Increased secretion of aldosterone generally results from adrenal adenoma or adrenal hyperplasia. Increased circulating aldosterone causes renal retention of sodium and water (see figure), so blood volume and arterial pressure increase. Plasma renin levels are generally decreased as the body attempts to suppress the renin-angiotensin system; there is also hypokalemia associated with the high levels of aldosterone.

4-Stress
Emotional stress leads to activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which causes increased release of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves in the heart and blood vessels, leading to increased cardiac output and increased systemic vascular resistance. Furthermore, the adrenal medulla secretes more catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). Activation of the sympathetic nervous system increases circulating angiotensin II, aldosterone, and vasopressin, which can increase systemic vascular resistance. Prolonged elevation of angiotensin II and catecholamines can lead to cardiac and vascular hypertrophy, both of which can contribute to a sustained increase in blood pressure.

5-Sleep Apnea
Sleep apnea is a disorder in which people repeatedly stop breathing for short periods of time (10-30 seconds) during their sleep. This condition is often associated with obesity, although it can have other causes such as airway obstruction or disorders of the central nervous system. These individuals have a higher incidence of hypertension. The mechanism of hypertension may be related to sympathetic activation and hormonal changes associated with repeated periods of apnea-induced hypoxia and hypercapnea, and from stress associated with the loss of sleep.


6-Hyper- or hypothyroidism
Excessive thyroid hormone induces systemic vasoconstriction, an increase in blood volume, and increased cardiac activity, all of which can lead to hypertension. It is less clear why some patients with hypothyroidism develop hypertension, but it may be related to decreased tissue metabolism reducing the release of vasodilator metabolites, thereby producing vasoconstriction and increased systemic vascular resistance.

7-Pheochromocytoma
Catecholamine secreting tumors in the adrenal medulla can lead to very high levels of circulating catecholamines (both epinephrine and norepinephrine). This leads to alpha-adrenoceptor mediated systemic vasoconstriction and beta-adrenoceptor mediated cardiac stimulation, both of which contribute to significant elevations in arterial pressure.. Despite the elevation in arterial pressure, tachycardia occurs because of the direct effects of the catecholamines on the heart and vasculature. Excessive beta-adrenoceptor stimulation in the heart often leads to arrhythmias. The pheochromocytoma is diagnosed by measuring plasma or urine catecholamine levels and their metabolites (vanillylmandelic acid and metanephrine).

8-Preeclampsia
This is a condition that sometimes develops during the third trimester of pregnancy that causes hypertension due to increased blood volume and tachycardia. The former increases cardiac output by the Frank-Starling mechanism.

9-Aortic coarctation
Coarctation, or narrowing of the aorta (typically just distal to the left subclavian artery), is a congenital defect that obstructs aortic outflow leading to elevated pressures proximal to the coarctation (i.e., elevated arterial pressures in the head and arms). Distal pressures, however, are not necessarily reduced as would be expected from the hemodynamics associated with a stenosis. The reason for this is that reduced systemic blood flow, and in particular reduced renal blood flow, leads to an increase in the release of renin and an activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. This in turn elevates blood volume and arterial pressure. Although the aortic arch and carotid sinus baroreceptors are exposed to higher than normal pressures, the baroreceptor reflex in blunted due to structural changes in the walls of vessels where the baroreceptors are located. Also, baroreceptors become desensitized to chronic elevation in pressure and become "reset" to the higher pressure.